The Nature Of Prejudice Psychology Essay

The temper Of preconceived nonion Psychology EssayIn the multi ethnical setting, outrage has run short normalized and has synchronized into our cursory lives receivable to the efforts of politics to harmonized bulk together. However, stipulation that bothone comes from a very antithetic and diverse background and family perspectives, there atomic number 18 bound to be mis realiseation and assumptions that we make on a daily basis that is somewhat skewed towards or against a different sort. And with the efforts of the authorities to authorization prejudice, it does not necessary mean that prejudice has withered finish but instead it may harbor become an innate notion that has continued on. In this essay we forget look into the psychological theories, concepts and look fores to represent the continued existence of prejudice and divergence within apiece single(a), all the aforementioned(prenominal) though our modern society look ons it as unsuitable.The Natu re of PrejudiceIn a personal context, a persons manner towards a lineal meeting of populate or people with distinct differences preserve be due to the complaisant schemas that a person develops with time, by experience and or through social process. Prejudice stool be described as a negative attitude or observable behavior towards a true socially delineate assemblage or genus Phalluss of that root word. It is to a fault known as prejudgment, the emotions felt or behavior portrayed gutternot be quantified nor jackpot it be justified. Even though in the modern society, prejudice and inequality argon seen as inappropriate or undesirable, it does still exist within each person and they vary in magnitude and severity mortally. In this essay, we exit cover the psychological theories, concepts and researches to understand the continued existence of prejudice and discrimination within each person, even though our modern society views it as undesirable.In the research d one by Kenneth Clark (1914 -2005), on the personal effects of prejudice, discrimination and segregation bring in on child development, he demonstrated the effects by observing the responses of black children, age between two to seven, when they ar presented with two sets of dolls, differing only by the dolls skin and hair colors. And from the observation, majority of the participants would privilege the lily-white dolls over the black dolls. Apart from that, the research in any case showed that xxx night club percent of the participants would choose the white dolls as a histrionics of themselves. It became apparent that the social norm that children were exposed to pre-defines the definition of world socially desirable and socially undesirable. It worrywise meant to steer individuals towards changing themselves mentally and or physically to become socially desirable in order to go away and fit the social norm. And the idea of being socially desirable and undesirable br ings about prejudice and the formation of classs. A classic pillow slip and origin of social prejudice erect be traced to the social inequalities which suggest and predicts women being assumed to perform split in a caretaker role because they are perceived to be unassertive and sensitive (Hoffman Hurst, 1990).The attitude of prejudice burn be described as a composite of three factors the bewitch of social beliefs are seen to cause over generalizing of the behavior of a person and also result in stereotyping. The emotions felt by an individual much(prenominal) as hostility and fear, when a person is found to be in an unfamiliar position, it predisposes a person to stimulatedly respond either to feel, hypothesize or to act in a way towards a group or an individual when exposed to a certain stimuli in a certain way. The observable actions can be observed through behaviors much(prenominal)(prenominal) as discrimination. Prejudice can also be examined in sex act to three fact ors, the severity of prejudice, the level of discrimination and the formation of beliefs, and stereotyping. These factors make up the basic structure of forming prejudice, as a mental schema that a person can refer to as a guide when situation calls for them. The mental schemas will influence how a person react and interpret the various experiences. And the pre-assumptions or conceived ideas about a certain group of people carry to skew ones interpretation of the observed behaviors and prediction of future actions of the member of the certain group.Prejudice can be categorized into two different types, blatant prejudice and subtle prejudice. Blatant prejudice refers to the open rejection of a certain groups or refers to certain groups to be inferior to them. The actions of blatant prejudice can be substantially observed and it is usually not withheld. An lawsuit of blatant prejudice can come in the form of riots and deduction against an opposing group or member of that certain g roup (Pettigrew, 1998).The different type is subtle prejudice refers to negative emotions felt towards or against the early(a) group or individuals which are usually being disguised or is being hidden behind other values that allow the individual to dislike that certain group in a less study manner as oppose to blatant prejudice. Some examples of subtle prejudices are the belief that the certain groups are becoming too pushy in wanting more rights than the rest, the denial of discrimination and the resentment of discrimination (Lambert, 1998).Prejudice can also be unconscious to people who denies having every racial or gender prejudices, that they may still have negative associations tie beaming to the socially defined group or individual. It is illustrated in the research and it had been observed that nine out of ten white participants of the research took longer time to link pleasant words with a black faces than linking pleasant words to white faces (Greenwald, McGhee, Sch wartz, 1998). It demonstrates that even though individuals do not recognize themselves to be having any stereotypes or discrimination towards a socially defined group or individual, the unconscious behaviors that was observed illustrates that social beliefs and social norms do actually influences a persons judgment and unconsciously forming prejudice against it.The other factor that can influence prejudice is the environment that an individual is found to be in. It influences the prejudice behavior of the individual that can either be observed or ashes undetected. For example a person will and can act non-prejudiced when the situation that they are in does not require them to. For example, an individual makes a non-prejudiced note towards a prejudiced behavior, so as to not offend members of the other group. In the same direction, prejudice can also be beef up in situations where the social norms that govern them are either weak or uncertain and it becomes justifiable and deemed acceptable for negative behavior towards the socially defined group or individual.In social psychology there have been many theories formulated to define the formulation of prejudice. There is the Psychodynamic or constitution approach according to Freud, prejudice is seen as a response to an on the fence(p) conflict during the stages of child development. He refers it to as a combination of record characteristics and that the incompatible and unconscious motives and urges which exist in our minds and depending on our relative strength, honorable values and external reality either one of the motives and urges will put the conscious thoughts and actions (Freud, 1917).The socio-cultural approach suggests that the cultural factors influences and creates social norms which plays an important role as to how a person is predisposed to results in formation of prejudiced view of the certain group or individual. A guess derived from this is the scapegoat theory which suggests that prej udice can also be an expression of anger such that when things go wrong, the scapegoat will provide a convenient emotional outlet and target for this anger which manipulates and influence people to create a common goal for the group (Katz, Glass, Cohen, 1973).The cognitive approach refers to the discipline bear upon and cognitive systems of the brain where prejudice arises out of normal mental processes, which can be explain through stereotyping and categorization. Social categorization and stereotyping refers to the formulation of unreal relation between a certain group and the perceived deficiencies. They also categorize people into certain groups and that they are categorized based on the social norms or traces they are associated with the others in the same group. People tend to favor those that are within their group than those people that are not within the group. Social categories are formed with association to stereotyping when we encode information in terms of social c ategories. Social categories are ingrained in a person that it is easily loving and prominently that they are mechanically used in social perception. The need to belong, dictates humans as group bound species in the search attain an identity of self when belong to a group. This is associated with the negative out-group stereotypes and positive in-group stereotypes that the group which means to be mentally differentiating and defining the grouping of us and them which also leads to people showing favoritism to their own group when dividing any rewards (Wilder, 1981) .Stereotyping provides general expectations about a certain group and it simplifies perception and evaluation of the individual members. Stereotype can impact the type of information that the brain is attending to and how it is being interpreted, they are easily accessible, and prominent that it can mechanically be used in social perception to reduce ambiguity during critical situations. The generality are guide by tw o elements, the trait information concerning what people of the certain group are like and the expectation of how this group of people will act. Stereotyping is not easy to be modified and acts can easily and automatically depart stereotyping. It will have an impact on the effects on a persons behavior and results in unintentional self-fulfilling prophecies and implicit behavioral effects (Mackie, Hamilton, Susskind, Rosselli, 1996).The or so researched common stereotype is sexism, where males are more than always perceived and unremarkably conjugate to stronger traits and attributes and on the flip side, females are often perceived and linked to weaker traits (Fiske, 1998). This stereotype originates from the prejudicial perspective that females are valued lesser than males, which can be traced back in history that males had all along been the breadwinner and females plays the primary care provider role and thus resulting in the stereotype of women represents weakness and are better in pickings up a more subtle role. some other typical stereotype that is relative to us would be racism, which refers to discrimination against an individual on the basis of the individuals race. It is often being generalized that people from the same race shares the same set of characteristic traits like abilities and qualities. And that personality trait such as intellect, morality, and other cultural behavioral characteristics are also inherited which in turn influence their reason to act, their practices and their beliefs. However, there are little or no scholarly evidence that agrees with the concept of race. The generalization forms an unintentional discrimination and stereotype towards a certain group and that people tend to make assumptions based on this stereotype. Racism assumption also acknowledges discriminatory behaviors and beliefs that can be based on cultural, ethnic, or ghostly stereotypes.The relationship between stereotyping and prejudice can be explaine d through the disassociation model (Devine, 1989). Where stereotyping is the knowledge about the attributes stereotypically associated with a particular group and it is automatically activated with stimulus and it can be acquired as early as during child development before we can critically evaluate. And that it is more accessible with greater activating and stronger association overtime. Whereas, prejudice refers to the endorsement and acceptance or non-acceptance of the cultural stereotype and that activation of prejudice is known to be controlled and that activation must be with the inhibition of stereotype and it requires time and cognitive capacity. The research shows that both high and low prejudice persons has equal knowledge of the cultural stereotype. Also, both high and low prejudice person uses stereotyping to evaluate ambiguous behaviors. And that low prejudiced person exhibited more positive thoughts, beliefs and less contradictory descriptions. The dissociation model concludes that the relationship between stereotype and prejudice is conditional on the task at hand and that stereotype can have effects on out decision without us making the communicativeised or conscious judgment (Devine, 1989).Social discrimination and prejudice can create a vicious cycle that entraps the individual or group within an illusionary boundary that is hard to get out from. An example of this cycle can originate from as simple as logical argument discrimination, which determines how much wealth a person has and in turn determines the invigoration environment of the person. The living environment also determines the level of education that the children will receive and thus affect the kind of job they will agree in the future, which sets them in a material disadvantage. And the types of discrimination also include reluctance to help, tokenism which refers to intentionally create a false appearance of inclusiveness and to distract accusations of discrimination and reverse discrimination (Vaughan Hogg, 2011). And the victims of prejudice can also become from psychological disadvantages, low self-esteem, and depressed aspiration, and also include physical and verbal abuses. And the consequences of prejudice can range from the least serious type like pre-assumption and prediction of an individuals behavior from the certain group, to open discrimination of the certain group which could lead to violence against the group and ultimately, extermination of the group and its members such as the holocaust.It is then apparent that prejudicial behavior are almost fateful for any individual given the different backgrounds and culture everyone had been brought up in, and the attainment prejudice may well have happened even before we can comprehend anything. Which results in prejudice both conscious and unconsciously in the decisions that we make in our daily life. Therefore, society plays an important role to sanction and subdue any overwhelming preju dice against any social discrimination, and that every individual should make a conscious effort to avoid taking advantage of it as a vehicle for personal gains. And that even though many would publicly deny as having any stereotype or prejudice against someone, prejudice has always been an innate thought process that can and has influence our behaviors externally.

The Issues At Daimler Benz Ag Management Essay

The Issues At Daimler Benz Ag Management EssayDaimler AG is peer slight of the worlds automotive companies. It distributes into Mercedes Benz Cars, Daimler Trucks, Mercedes Benz Vans, Daimler Buses and Daimler Financial Services. The Daimler assort is one of the biggest set outr of premium simple machines and the worlds biggest maker of commercial vehicles with a worldwide reach. (Daimler, 2011)Daimlers corporate goal is to achieve stainable profitable growth and to unificationmation the quantify of the party. Daimler aims to be the worlds leading automotive companies, intend to inspire customer with the brands, products and services and strive to occupy the leading for sustainable drive systems. (Daimler, 2011) imagine 1 is shown the Daimler Target System.1.2 HistoryDaimler AG has 125 old age history. Gottlieb Daimler and Carl Benz were the pioneers of the automobile manufacture in the 19th century. After the First World War, in that respect was a world economic cr isis. The war caused a great falloff for the world economy. It was a great challenge for Daimler-Benz. In 1937, Daimler-Benz AG started to produce armament items and aircraft engines. It was necessary to do reconstruction afterwards the war reproach in 1945. In 1949 to 1960, Daimler-Benz AG succeeded in regaining the position in the automobile industry. In 1960s and 1970s, Daimler-Benz defended an outstanding position in multinational motor vehicle markets. In the end of 1970s, Daimler-Benz assessed cautiously with the oil crisis and saucily Asian competitors. Since 1995, new strategic realignment concentrated on transport and services. The spheric economic crisis touched Daimler-Benz deeply in the end of 2008. (Daimler, 2011)2. Issue placeThe issue is the merger amid Daimler-Benz AG and the American automobile manufacturer Chrysler raft, but the near decade merger was finished by DaimlerChrysler AG sold 80.1% stake in 2007.2.1 The Reason of choosing this issueSince Daimler and Chrysler located in different countries that are Germany and linked States respectively. Both of them have their own coating. It is cross-culture. through and through the merger betwixt Daimler and Chrysler, I find out that the culture is one of the factor should be considered when two companies come from different countries.2.2 Brief interpretation of the issueIn 1998, in that location was merger between Daimler-Benz AG of Germany and Chrysler Corporation of the United States (BBC News, 1998).On 6 May 1998, the merger agreement between Daimler-Benz AG and Chrysler Corporation was signed in London. On 7 May, they inform the merger to the worldwide and the new company called DaimlerChrysler AG. (Sheltom, Hall and Darling, 2003)DaimlerChrysler became the worlds fifth largest car make after merger. Mr Schrempp described the merger as a sexual union made in heaven. Also, the new combined forethought had promised that on that point depart be no plant-closures or lay-offs after merger. (BBC News, 1998)In 2002, DaimlerChrysler implemented a restructuring program that aims to bring it struggling Chrysler division back into the black by 2003. (BBC News, 2002)In 2006, DaimlerChrysler formated to pay former Daimler-Benz shareholders nigh 232m euros to settle a dispute over its 1998 creation. This was not the first time that DaimlerChrysler had been sued over its establishment. (BBC News, 2006)Also, in 2006, the company brought unwelcome information to investors by revealing that Chrysler was losing money. This year, Chrysler set to quantify up $1bn losses (BBC News, 2006)In 2007, in that respect was deeply concerned nigh its poor performance, and the shareholders were pressuring the company to sell it. (BBC News, 2007a)In 2007, the German-US firm paid 5.5bn euros to steal 80.1%, much less than the $36bn paid for Chryslers 1998 merger with Daimler-Benz. (BBC News, 2007b)In 1998, Daimler Chairman Juergen Schrempp promised a merger of equals. But it wa snt long before Chrysler executives complained the bullheaded Germans would not take heed to the Americans. The kind began to fall quickly. Schrempp said that if he had been honest with the Americans about German dominance before the merger, they never would have made a deal. (abc News, 2010) goal digressions were blamed for the failure of DaimlerChrysler. This is like citing irreconcilable differences. DaimlerChryslers incapability to combine the company cultures was one of the reasons of failure. (Mann, 2007)3. Analysis of situation3.1 The Reason of using this computer simulationI will use Hofstedes culture different model to analyze this issue. It is because Hofstedes culture different model can have a comparison between these two countries. Also, Hofstede collected over 116,000 people in 50 countrys look into (Deresky, 2003) about organizational behavior. This data makes the model more believable. Also, Hofstede used constructed scabrous indices to rank each of the nation within the proportion based on pagan differences (Signorini, Wiesemes and Murphy, 2009)3.2 Hofstedes culture different modelHofstedes culture different model is a framework that understand how basic de bourneine underlie organizational behavior. Hofstede proposed four value dimensions, they are causality outgo, indecision dodge, individualism and maleness (Deresky, 2003).First, the value dimensions is federal agency outgo, it is the level of acceptance by a cabaret of the unequal statistical distribution of power in organizations. blue power distance that employees accept the bosss authority is larger than themselves in the pecking order and they seldom ring road the chain of command. The example of spicy power distance is Philippines. On the otherwise hand, menial power distance is that boss and employees are having equal power, and the relationship between boss and employees are more harmony and cooperation, such as Austria. (Deresky, 2003)For the second dimension , it is uncertainty avoidance that refers to the extent to which people feel menace by ambiguity in the social. High level of uncertainty avoidance causes that people tend to have strict laws and procedures, also have a strong sense of nationalism. In note side, the imposing rules and procedures were designed to cater more security and greater career stability. Japan is the example of high level of uncertainty avoidance. However, low level of uncertainty avoidance causes that the nationalism is less decided and protests is allowed, and then the company is less structured and less formal. United States is one of the low level of uncertainty avoidance. (Deresky, 2003)The third value dimension is individualism. It refers to the tendency of people to look after themselves and their family and to ignore the indigence of society. Individualism is that accomplishment and democracy are highly valued. The relationship is freedom between individual and organizations, the instance of in dividualism is United States. Collectivism that there is a strong belief in concourse decisions, believe the group more than the individual. Japan is the one of countries of collectivism. (Deresky, 2003)Fourth, masculinity is the degree of masculine values that assertiveness, materialism and lack of concern for other. Masculine culture considers cooperation more than individualistic. High masculine societies that one finds great telephone circuit puree and organizational kindles loosely intrude on employees private lives. The example of highly masculine societies is Japan. On the other hand, counties with low masculinity that cause less conflict and job stress and reduce the need for assertiveness, such as Switzerland. (Deresky, 2003)The fifth dimension is the short- endpoint orientation and long-run orientation, it is Hofstede added later. Long-term orientation is fostering virtues about future rewards. concisely-term orientation is fostering virtues about the past and pres ent. (Signorini, et al 2009)3.3 Analysis of the issuePower distanceIn term of power distance, larger power distance countries are having more privileges for high level status, small power distance countries are preferred egalitarian (Signorini et al., 2009). fit to Figure 2, the power distances grad of Germany and United States is 35 and 40 respectively. Their moment based on Hofstedes analysis is nearly, the level of accept unequal distribution of power in organization is low (Schneider and Barsoux, 2003). About Daimler organization, they embraced formality and hierarchy that think up the subordinates prefer to listen superior. Also, the employee in Daimler needed to retrace the hierarchy such as decision fashioning process. Employee needs to follow the formal head, it shown the manager relies on formal rule. (Badrtalei and Bates, 2007) Daimler-Benz had a more traditional delegacy in commission stylus, they used top-down management style (Anonymous, 2004). German manager s preferred autocratic style in leadership style. German employees are obedient to managers and follow them unquestioningly expect give the employee specific order, that mean employee had high dependence. (Sheltom et al., 2003) Based on the above information, Daimler belongs the high power distance and became the tall organization pyramids.About Chrysler, they were ignored barriers and promoted cross-functional teams that favored free-form discussions and casual rejoinder that the subordinates wanted to be discussed to superior. Also, the executives allowed mid-level manager to go forward their own opinion. (Badrtalei et al., 2007) In term of management style, Chrysler had a reputation for having more freewheeling, clear-cut culture (Anonymous, 2004). Regard to the leadership, their employees expect to be treated accordingly that mean the employees bonk the equal right. In organization, employees can challenge their manager that employees needed for low dependence. (Shelton et al ., 2003) The organization pyramids of Chrysler are flatter than Daimler.Uncertainty avoidanceBased on Figure 2, the set of Germany is 65 and United States is 46. It shown that German was unhappiness with equivocal situations and people wanted more delegacy and less change and the perplexing situation may develop anxiety or stress. Because little direction and considerable uncertainty would made work less effectively in the company, they wrote some rules to cover the situation. On the other hand, United States was more ordain to take risk and much less resistant to change. (Brooks, 2003) In Daimler Organization, there was suit-and-tie dress code and the employees should respect their titles and proper names. About decision making process, Daimler set up the formal channel and followed the hierarchy and complex decision-making processes. (Badrtalei et al., 2007) Germans analyse a problem need to use great detail, find a solution, then discussed with the partners to make a decisio n (Dorothee, 1999). It shown that Daimler needs laws and rules when manages the organization.Chryslers employees favored open collars and they could bring out their ideas freely (Badrtalei et al., 2007). It shown they were less need for rule. Based on the score of uncertainty avoidance, United States is lower than Germany. The force fitted in the Daimler and Chrysler, because Daimler management preferred more to follow the rule and formal. Conversely, Chrysler was more casual management style that less stress and relax. When American discussed the problem, they created the solution during the discussion, not follow the information. (Dorothee, 1999)Individualism versus CollectivismIn individualist nations, the individual is more independent in the group. In collectivist nations, the groups interest is more principal(prenominal) that individuals interest. (Signorini et al., 2009) fit to Figure 2, the run of Germany and United States is 67 and 91 respectively. United States is the highest score in the world. Hofstede found that American culture tend more individualistic and Asian cultures tend to be much more collective. (Brooks, 2003) Germans preferred a tightly knit social framework in which individuals look after one another and protect their members interests. Luthans (1998) said that Geramns are less individualistic than people in the USA. (Shelton et al., 2003) That reflected Germans perform best in in-groups. Also, Germans were more honorific of title, age and background connections, for example culture accords status based on gender, age or social connections. (Shelton et al., 2003) The executives of Daimler had larger staffs and fatter expense accounts (Badrtalei et al., 2007), the obligations of group were important than self.On the other hands, Chrysler is the American based company, so their culture was affected by American culture. USAs companies were tended to grant status based on achievement (Shelton et al., 2003), it reflected they hiring a nd promotion decisions based on skills. In Chrysler, officers had broader responsibilities and bigger salaries and bonuses (Badrtalei et al., 2007), their obligations of organization were low. masculinity versus FemininityBased on Figure 2, the score of Germany and United States is 66 and 62 respectively. Masculinity countries that people strengthen assertiveness and competition and interest in material success. Femininity countries that people concern more with spirit environment and relationship. (Signorini et al., 2009)In the result of Hofstede, Germany and United Statess result was approach. In order to maintain the luxury image of Daimler, employees flew first-class during business spark. (Badrtalei et al., 2007) Daimler had a stress on competition. However, only top officers of Chrysler could fly first-class during the business travel (Badrtalei et al., 2007), it also was the performance of the masculinity. Because both of them preferred the masculinity in the result of Hofs tede, their value of work, money and achievement were similarly.Long term orientation versus Short term orientationIn term of long term orientation, there are differentiation between elder and younger sisters and brothers, in business that mental synthesis of relationships and market position, people should live more equally. Short term orientation that all siblings are equal, in business that short-time results and the bottom line, economic and social life to be ordered by abilities etc. (Schneider and Barsoux, 2003) The result of long term orientation in Germany is 31, United States is 29 that shown in Figure 2. These two countries belonged to short term orientation based on Hofstede. Actually, Luthans (1998) remarked that Germans had a longer-time orientation. About workforce, Germany is more stable than United States. German employees preferred work for many years for the same company, they focused on building of relationships and a strong market position. (Shelton et al., 2003 ) Germans forced on full-year results of monetary inform system. (Badrtalei et al., 2007)On the other side, US employees were instable of the workforce and they rarely worked many years in the same company (Shelton et al., 2003), because they focus on short-term results. Also, the financial reporting system is on a quarterly basis (Badrtalei et al., 2007).4. ratiocinationDaimler AG is one of the worlds automotive companies and it has 125 years history. Gottlieb Daimler and Carl Benz was the founder of Daimler-Benz AG.In 1998, there was the merger between Daimler-Benz AG and Chrysler Corporation, these two companies located in Germany and United States respectively. And the cooperation of Daimler and Chrysler was merger of equals. At the beginning, their merger was viewed a strong alinement by international market. However, their relationship of merger maintained nine years. During the merger, DaimlerChrysler had ethnical clashes, since the employees of DaimlerChrysler were came f rom Daimler and Chrysler respectively, they had some differences in work habits, communication style, planning and decisions, negotiation strategies and leadership.The cultural clashes of DaimlerChrysler can use Hofstedes cultural difference model to analyze. Hofstedes cultural difference model has five value dimensions to analyze the cultural difference. They are power distance dimension, the uncertainty avoidance dimension, individualist-collectivist dimension, masculinity-femininity dimension and long-term orientation short-term orientation dimension. According to Figure 2, the result of power distance dimension, masculinity-femininity and long-term orientation short-term orientation on Germany and United States is closely. Conversely, there was obviously difference on individualism-collectivist dimension and uncertainty avoidance dimension.In term of power distance dimension, Daimler executed hierarchy in the management style that subordinates must follow superior. On the oth er side, Chrysler was more freewheeling in management style, such as employee can challenge their manager.About uncertainty avoidance, Daimler was higher than Chrysler. Daimler was more traditional and need to use formal channel when making decision. Conversely, Chrysler preferred open collars, free-form discussions and casual repartee. (Badrtalei et al., 2007)Regard to individualism-collectivism, United States is the highest score in the world. Since Chrysler is the American based company, they were more force on themselves.To sum up, the Germans regarded the entrepreneurial spirit and innovative thinking, whereas the Americans valued the methodological engineering expert capabilities. (Darling, Seristo and Gabrielsson, 2005)5. RecommendationsAppendixDaimler Target SystemFigure 1The result of Germany and United StatesFigure 2

Lung Cancer: History, Causes, Types and Treatments

Lung crabmeat History, Ca examples, Types and TreatmentsLung pubic louse presentmentLung crabby person is a large-hearted of crab louse that begins in the lungs. Lungs argon the spongy organs in the chest that be responsible for taking in oxygen when unrivaled inhales and releases carbon-dioxide when i exhales. Lung crab louse is the principal causation of crabby person link deaths in the linked States, amongst both(prenominal) women n and men. It claims to a greater extent lives per annum than does bosoms, ovarian, prostate and colon crabmeats, exclusively combined. large number that smoke mystify the highest chances of woefulness this ailment. The insecurity of infection of this form of crabby person alterrs with the number of cig bettes hotshot smokes and the duration that unrivaled smokes. Lung malignant neoplastic disease brotherly movements the demise of more than peerless million muckle general in a single social class. It is projected that roughly 90% of deaths ca utilise by lung genus Cancer in men and 75-80% overall deaths in the United States ar owed to take in. Vividly, lung genus Cancer is a prevalent and imperative disease that constitutes a study wellness problem in the origination.HistoryIn the past cl years, lung lavatorycer was non-exis disco biscuitt. In the year 1878, precisely 1% represented the crabby personous lung send packingcers that were go overn by the pathology institute of university of Dresden, Germany. By the year 1918, the percentage of piece of tailcer had fall up to ab protrude 10% and by the year 1927 it had risen to more than 14%. It was n nonpareild in 1930 that t the turn of the overbold century the send packingcerous tumors had begun to accession and whitethorn be even more by the blockade of World War I. It was noned that whilst nigh of the lung tumors happened to men, in that location seemed to be a rise of the tumors in women as well. The period of the dise ase from the time it was cognise to the time of death was usually between a year and dickens years at roughly. In all these cases of the patients diagnosed with the lung tumors, there had been a lengthened history of chronic bronchitis.The ontogeny of lung trickcer was said to give way been on the rise due to several app bent etiological chemical elements increase in air pollution by dust and gasses that were emitted by the industries existence opened to gases in World War I increase automobile profession and conveying with gasoline or benzene. Nevertheless, lung thronecer cases rose at an as alarming rate in the countries that had few automobiles, less industries and workers not dismiss to gasoline and benzene. In several instances, smoking was mentioned as a hap that perplexd lung cancer, except many investigations failed to confirm a link between lung cancer and smoking. thither were until now suspicions that smoking did actually contri besidese to the illness . However, in the year 1929, Fritz Linckint, a German physician, researched and published the findings that the lung cancer patients were most worryly to be smokers. This led to his campaigns against smoking which led to the crack of anti-tobacco activism in Germany.The link amid lung cancer and smoking of cigarettes began to be prominent in the 1930s due to the suspicions of clinicians owed to the increase in the disease. After twain decades, smoking was declared an agent that featured lung cancer. In the 1940s in Germany, lung cancer was the second frequent own of cancer death afterward stomach cancer. Research by The German contribute for Tobacco Hazards Research postulated that amongst 109 lung cancer patients, except three were not smokers. It further excessivelyk a precise long time for the truth to sink in that there was a causative link between lung cancer and smoking. or so of the smokers as well as the physicians, who enjoyed cigarettes ref apply to trust that their habit was harmful to their health.In the 1500s two regions in Czechoslovakia and Germany, Joachimsthal and Schneeberg were productive mines that yielded arsenic, bismuth, cobalt, nickel and silver. The miners in these ores developed conscionable intimately deadly disease that the locals confinesed at the mountain disease that was labeled an occupational disease for the miners. Most thought that arsenic was the root coif of this lung cancer but it was later proven that it was the emissions of radium that was the crusade.Lung Cancer Risks and CausesTo a enormous extent, the biggest cause of lung cancer is smoking. Smoking causes over 8 tabu of ten lung cancer cases including a tiny fraction caused due to being undetermined to second hand smoke for the non-smokers (passive smoking). The more an individual smokes, the higher the chances of acquiring lung cancer though the length of time that one stays a smoker is even more crucial than the number of cigarettes one takes a day. It is more harmful to start smoking at a a one-year-old tender age than starting as an mature. When one stops smoking it reduces the attempts they gain of contacting lung cancer as compared to continuing to smoke. The sooner one quits, the better their health. Passive smoking, breathing in early(a) persons smoke from cigarettes, increases the misadventure of lung cancer though it is much less if one smokes themselves. Cigarette smoking is whence the study basis of lung cancer. Cigar and pipe smokers withal view an change magnitude chance of acquire lung cancer as compared to those who do not smoke. They are also rattling likely to get cancer of the lip or m come inh. In the past lung cancer was common with men than women, but nowadays since more women are smoking, it is also as common amongst women. separate attempt factors that are known to cause lung cancer include the exposure to radon gases and certain chemicals, air pollution, a previous lung disease, a family history of lung cancer, get down imm genius, previously smoking related cancers, and a past slightnessment of cancer. atomic number 86 gas is a congenital radioactive gas that originates from the tiny deposits of uranium plunge in all soils and rocks. Radon gas is the second biggest cause of lung cancer after smoking. Exposure to radon gas increases the happen of getting lung cancer for the smokers. It is therefore advisable for the mickle alimentation in states disposed to this gas to stop smoking since their chances of getting lung cancer are very high.Certain chemicals take hold been known to cause lung cancer diesel exhaust, silicon oxide and as scoop upos. Contact with As surmountos was common in the 1960s in the shipbuilding and complex trunk part industries. Asbestos is still a lung cancer cause since the cancers take a beautiful long time to develop. Smokers are at a higher encounter of contacting lung cancer when overt to asbestos. Silica is also a ch emical that is used in glass making and is harmful to the piecee body since it causes a condition called silicosis. A person suffering from this illness has a very high chance of getting lung cancer, and once again, smokers are more at hazard as compared to non-smokers. Air pollution has also been known to cause lung cancer. It however depends on the level of air pollution one exposes themselves to.People who provoke had previous diseases in the lungs shake off an increased rate of getting lung cancer. Adenocarcinoma of the lung is a form of lung cancer that occurs after one has had a disease in the past that caused a dissimilariate in the lungs. atomic number 65 is one much(prenominal) disease that can leave a scar in the lung. People who possess suffered from tuberculosis have a bivalent risk of getting lung cancer. The risk continues for over 20 years of the disease. Chlamydia pneumoniae is a kind of a bacterium known to cause chest infections. The slew with the anti bodies to Chlamydia pneumonia have an increased chance of getting lung cancer. The risk is even extensive for the smokers.Family history of lung cancer could also be an some former(a) risk factor to lung cancer. If a person has a initiative degree relative with the disease, their risk of lung cancer go forth be increased by 50%. This risk is however higher if a sister or br early(a) has lung cancer, than the parent. This risk is not dependent on whether an individual smokes or not. Families with smokers could be exposed to smoke from cigarettes and therefore increase the chances of contacting lung cancer whether they have inherited a defective gene or not. Research has it that there is a likelihood that at least a single faulty gene could increase the risk of lung cancer and can be passed down in the family, inherited. in that location is evidence that particular treatments of cancer could increase the risks of lung cancer. An assessment into the cure for dope cancer shows that the ways of administering radiotherapy have in the past increased the risk of developing lung cancer. Oestrogen receptor negative patients suffering from breast cancer have a high risk of getting lung cancer. otherwise passel who whitethorn also have increased chances of getting lung cancer are those that have been treated for a type of cancer of the womb, testicular cancer, and Hodgkin lymphoma. Just like in the past causes of cancer discussed above, the chances of getting lung cancer are more increased for the smokers. Persons who have had neck, head cancer, cervical cancer and oesophagal cancer have a high risk of lung cancer. This could be explained by the reason that all the mentioned cancers are common for smokers, though it could also be due to radiotherapy curative procedures.The drugs that people take after they have had organ trans innovationts and the people with HIV/AIDS both have low-down immunity. People with HIV or AIDS therefore have a risk of lung cancer that is 3 times more than those that do not have the disease. People who use drugs that suppress immunity after they have had an organ transplant have a double the regular risk of lung cancer. People with autoimmune conditions such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis also have an increased chance of getting lung cancer.Signs and Symptoms of Lung CancerLung cancer whitethorn not throw any conspicuous symptoms during the early stages. In about 40% of persons diagnosed with lung cancer, diagnosis is radiation diagramly make after the disease has already advanced. In most of the patients, the cancer advances to stage three for it to be detected. at that place are however some lung cancer symptoms that one ought to watch out for and try medical oversight early in advance.A new cough up up that lingers is one sign of lung cancer since a cough related to a respiratory infection or cold should disappear inwardly one to two weeks. One should not label a lingering cough as just a cough whe ther it is mucus producing or dry. It is therefore advisable to see a doctor immediately for testing. Changes in the cough is also trivial to note more so for the smokers. These changes include the cough having a hoarse and blockheadeder sound, coughing up more mucus than normal or melodic line and coughing more often than is usual. Becoming well breathless or experiencing shortness of breath are some probable indicators of lung cancer. This symptom could probably occur when the lung cancer narrows or blocks the airway, or when unruffled from the lung tumor accumulates in the chest. This symptom should not be ignored for weariness or dismissed for whatever reason.The presence of lung cancer can produce torture the back, shoulder and chest areas. The aching feeling could however not be accompanied by coughing. The chest pain caused by lung cancer is owed to a discomfort that is as a payoff of metastasis or the refinement of lymph nodes to the ribs, pleura (lining in the lung region) or the chest wall. Wheezing is another symptom of lung cancer. The tin whistle or wheezing sound is produced by the lungs when one breaths, since the airways become inflamed, close up and constricted by the occurrence of the tumor. Since wheezing is associated with treatable and benign causes, one should have it checked and not assume it since it could be a probable cause of lung cancer. The voice changes when one has lung cancer and becomes raspier, hoarse and deeper. Hoarseness in normal circumstances could be as a result of a frank cold, but when it persists to more than two weeks it ought to be checked out. The hoarseness that is related to lung cancer occurs when a tumor tampers with the nerves that are responsible for tyrannical the voice box or larynx.A weight press release that cannot be explained of approximately 10 pounds or more whitethorn be tie in to lung cancer or a contrary type of lung cancer. When there is a cancer in the body, ones weight drops as a result of the cancer cells using the energy in the body. It also tampers with the normal way in which the body uses energy acquired from food. Lung cancer could mete out to the bones producing pain in the body and more so in the back. The pain is worse at night when the patient rests on their back. Lung cancer is also linked to pain in the neck, arm and shoulder. Headaches could be a sign that the lung cancer has spread to the brain. The headaches could also be triggered by pressure by the lung tumor on the superior vena cava (the large vein responsible for moving blood to the heart from the upper body).Prevention of Lung CancerSeveral factors may serve well in the protection of lung cancer diet, physical act, aspirin and having multiple sclerosis. Vegetables and fresh fruits may attend to in the prevention of lung cancer since they contain chemicals that can prevent pervert to cells. The antioxidant vitamins E, C and A, are also thought to sustain in the reduction of lung c ancer. New evidence postulates that flavonoids in many vegetables and fruits help reduce the risk of lung cancer. Research is however ongoing to find out which exact nutrients in vegetables and fruits are of utmost help. Beta cryptoxanthin, found in fruits like mangoes and oranges may lower risk of lung cancer. Changing diet only when cannot reduce the risk of lung cancer much when one carries on smoking. The most vital thing is to quit smoking.Studies have shown that high levels of physical activity can lower the risk of lung cancer. This includes the activities at home, work and leisure activities such as golf and walking. Some research has it that taking aspirin may reduce the risk of lung cancer but other studies have not. Other studies postulate that aspirin intake may only reduce the risk in men or for people taking 7 tablets within a week. It is however not advisable to take aspirin on regular basis without the doctors instructions since it may cause bleeding or damage the s tomach lining. People with multiple sclerosis, accord to some research, have a low lung cancer risk.Types of Lung CancerThere are two main lung cancer types Small Cell Lung Cancer (SCLC) and non-small cell lung cancer. The staging of lung cancer depends on whether the cancer has spread from lungs to lymph nodes or other organs, or whether the cancer is local. Since the lungs are very large, tumors can set about for a long duration in the beginning they are found. Symptoms such as fatigue and coughing may occur but people volition unendingly dismiss them thinking they are caused by other causes. callable to this reason, the early stages of lung cancer (stages I and II) are difficult to detect. Most people suffering from cancer are diagnosed at stages III and IV.Treatment Options for Lung CancerThere are four varied ways on how to treat lung cancer targeted therapy, chemotherapy, radiation therapy and surgery. The options for treatment and recommendations highly depend on a numbe r of factors such as the patients overall health and preferences, the contingent side do and the stage and type of lung cancer. The burster plan also includes treatment for the symptoms and the side effects.SurgeryA thoracic operating surgeon is mainly trained to exercise lung cancer surgery. The aim of surgery in cancer treatment is to completely remove the lung tumor and the close by lymph nodes in the chest area. The tumor should be removed with a environ margin or border of normal lung tissue. Several types of surgery may possibly be used for lung cancer Pneumonectomy, segmentectomy, a wedge, lobectomy, radiofrequency ablation and supportive therapy. Adjuvant therapy is the cure given after surgery to lessen the lung cancer risk returning. It involves chemotherapy, targeted therapy and radiation therapy. The intention behind adjuvant therapy is to rid the body of any cancer cells that may still be in the body after the surgery.Radiation therapyThis is the application of h igh energy x-rays and other particles to unmake cells of cancer. A radiation oncologist gives radiation therapy to cancer patients. External-beam radiation therapy is the most on a regular basis used form of radiation therapy used that is given by use of a machine that is outside the body. Brachytherapy, radiation treatment using implants, in not used for lung cancer. Lung cancer patients who undergo radiation therapy experience loss of appetite and fatigue. If therapy is administered in the center of the chest or neck, patients may have difficulty swallowing or experience a sore throat.ChemotherapyThis is the use of drugs to drop off cancer cells by dint of with(predicate) stopping the cancer cells growth and division. Chemotherapy has been proven to improve the quality and length of life for the lung cancer patients in all stages. gross ways of administering chemotherapy is finished placing an intravenous (IV) tube that is placed in the vein by use of needle or a capsule or pill administered orally. Chemotherapy side effects depend on the dose used and individual. They include hair loss, diarrhea, appetite loss, vomiting, nausea, fatigue and risk of infection. The side effects normally go away when the treatment is finished.Targeted therapyThis form of treatment blocks the spread and growth of cancer cells whilst limiting harm to healthy cells. For lung cancer, the types of targeted therapy administered include anti-angiogenesis therapy. findingIt is not always possible to recover fully from cancer. When the treatment does not succeed, the disease is called terminal or advanced cancer. Diagnosis is very nerve-racking for many patients to discuss. It is however crucial to have an honest and open countersign with the healthcare team or doctor to express concerns, preferences and feelings. Patients with advanced cancer and expected to live for less than six months should consider palliative care known as hospice. Hospice care is intended to provide the possible best quality life for people climb the end of life.genus genus Arius and Athanasius epitomeArius and Athanasius AnalysisSYPNOSISArius and Athanasius were archrivals of the Arian controversy. Arius was the leading father in Arianism whilst Athanasius was the container of the Nicene Theology for orthodox saviorianity against Arianism. As Arianism rejects the theological governance of Christ, salvation to mankind was at stake. Athanasius advocates the consubstantiality of the three persons of the trinity which was crucial argument to defend the divinity of Christ. Consequently Athanasius had built the ground of the Trinitarian and Christological doctrine which in concert with the humanity of Christ represents the complete Trinitarian righteousness. I. INTRODUCTIONThe fourth century church building experienced a major crisis in understanding gods churchman reputation, characteristics and birth with members of the deityhead. This Arian controversy centred upon two archrival theologians, Arius and Athanasius.1 The controversy represented a new phase of doctrinal development of the deityhead and led to the Council of Nicaea in 325 and the church services counterbalance ecumenical statement of the Trinity. 2 Athanasius was the champion of Nicene Theology, who greatly defended the tralatitious Christianity against the Arian heresy.3 Section II of this essay go away briefly discuss the emphasize of Arius, and summarize his basic godliness. Section III will provide an overview about Athanasiuss life, Athanasius theology in conjunction with his defence against the Arians heretic claims. Finally, the goal will be drawn in Section IV.II. THE ARIAN CONTROVERSYThe Arian controversy enkindled in 318, when Arius openly taught his heretic teachings that denied the full divinity of the pass intelligence information. Consequently, Arius challenged his bishop ( black lovage of Alexandria) and teachers of Alexandria to an Christological conflict.4 Th e controversy lasted for nearly half(a) a century and became the oppositeness between the two archrivals, the Nicene party and Origenists.5 Athanasius coined the names Arian and Arians as pejorative political and theological slurs against Arius and his opponents, who disagreed with him on the consubstantiality of the countersign with the let, and those meant the watchword as a savage or held fast to Arius basic position. cf. Thomas G. Weinandy, Athanasius a Theological Introduction (Hampshire, England Ashgate Publishing, 2007), 51-52. Donald K. McKim, Theological Turning Points major Issues in Christian model (Atlanta John Knox Press, 1988), 14.Justo L. Gonzlez, The Story of Christianity The Early church to the Dawn of The rehabilitation (3 vols.,New York HarperCollins Publishers, 1984, Vol. 1), 173. Johannes Quasten, Pathology The Golden Age ofGreek patristic Literature. From the Council of Nicaea to the council of Chalcedon (Utrecht, NetherlandsSpectrum Publishers, 196 3, Vol. III), 66.Bruce L. Shelly, Church History in Plain Language (2nd Ed., Dallas, Texas articulate Publishing, 1995), 100.Everett Ferguson (ed.), encyclopaedia of Early Christianity (New York Garland Publishing Inc., 1990), 8485, 92. The controversy roots lay deep in the differences of the ante-Nicene doctrine of the pa parting, especially in the two contradictory half truths of Origens Christology, which wasclaimed by both archrivals the full divinity of Christ and his eternal bite fromthe amaze.6 Conclusively, the Arians were the catalysts, rather than the main participants.7II.1. ARIUS AND HIS DOCTRINETrained in the Lucian School, Arius was called one of the heretical fathers of Arianism.8 Arianism was a heretical doctrine of theological rationalism, establish on the teachings of Lucian of Antioch, Paul of Samosata, and Neoplatonic conjecture of controlism.9 Arius wrote very short(p) and only a few fragments survived. Thalia was his only own writing which Athanasius re cited.10 Most education about Arius life and his doctrine came from Athanasius belles-lettres.11Influenced by Origen, Arius jilted the term (consubstantial) and insisted the concrete and distinct three persons () of the deityhead, a separate heart and soul and the subordination of the intelligence to Father.12 Nicene split the church into two major groups 1) The Nicene party consisted of the West, the school of Antioch and other in the East like Athanasius. They affirmed the full immortal of saviour Christ, but were less clear on the eternal threeness of the matinee idolhead. They did not deny the distinction between Father, intelligence and holy Spirit (i.e. they were not Monarchians), but they did not state it as forcefully as the Origenists wanted and so appeared to them to be Monarchian. (2) The Origenists were strong on the threeness of the matinee idolhead, but less clear on the deity of Jesus Christ. They were not Arians (i.e. they did not see Jesus Christ as a c reature made out of nothing), but they held him to be inferior to the Father and so appeared Arian to the Nicene party. cf Tony Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought (Rev. ed., London TT Clark, 2006), 30. Philip Schaff, Arianism in A unearthly cyclopedia or dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology (3rd ed. Toronto, New York London Funk Wagnalls Company, 1894, Vol. 1) 134137. cf http//www.earlychurch.org.uk/arianism-schaff.html (29 April 2010).Tony Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought, 30-31. Philip Schaff, Arianism in A religiousEncyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology, 134-137. cfhttp//www.earlychurch.org.uk/arianism-schaff.html (29 April 2010).Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 7.Ephiphanius, Panarion 69,4. Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, 1,4. cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 15. strike out Scholars still debate over the ideological forerunner of Arius doctrine, whether it was derived fro m thetheories of Origen, or of Paul of Samosata, or of Lucian of Antioch. cf Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 2, 6-8.Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, I.5,6 Athanasius, De Synodis, 15. R. P. C. Hanson, The look for forChristian school of thought of God The Arian line 318-381 (Edinburgh T T Clark Ltd., 1988), 11.And a few sources from the church historians of the fourth and fifth centuries, and from the letters of St.Basil and of Epiphanius of Salamis. cf Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 10-13.Philip Schaff, Arianism in A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal,and Practical Theology, 134-137. John Behr, The Way to Nicaea The validation of Christian Theology (3vols. Crestwood, New York St Vladimirs Seminary Press, 2001, Vol. 1), 200-201. Arius denied all internal divine sexual congresss existing between the Father and the Son theeternal deity of Christ and his equality with the Father ().13II.2. A SUMMARY OF ARIUS moralityArius basic doctrine14 (1) Godhead is uncreated, unbegotten (), without beginning15 (2) The Son of God cannot be truly God. The Son is the first of Gods creatures, a lower-ranking God, god by participation. Like the other creations, the Son is not unbegotten (), he is one of the things fashioned and made, 16 brought out ex nihilo ( ). There was a time when the Son of God was not ( ).17 uncomplete does the Son indeed know his own marrow squash as it is, he was created for our sake, rather than we for his. He is the Son of God not in the metaphysical, but in the moral sense of the word.18 By the will of God, the Son has his statute and character ( ). The Son is by his nature changeable, mutable, equally with otherrational beings. The Father is ineffable to the Son for neither does the Word ( password) short and accurately know the Father, neither can he perfectly see Him (the Father).19(3) The title of God is improper for the Son of God, since the only avowedly God select himas Son in prevision of his merits. This sonship by adoption insists no real participationin the divinity and no true gloss to it and so, the absolute and eternal divinity of Christ13Epiphanius, Panarion 69.6.1ff. Theodoret of Cyrus, Haereticarum fabularum compendium (History ofHeresies) I.5. Cf. Philip Schaff, Arius in A Religious Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical,Doctrinal, and Practical Theology,139. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 7-8.14Epiphanius, Panarion 69,6. Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, 1,5,1-4. Athanasius, De Synodis 15.Socrates, Historia ecclesiastica, 1,6. Gelasius of Cyzicus, Historia conc. Nic. 2,3. Cf. Johannes Quasten,Pathology, 8, 14, 15-16.Cf. Athanasius, Epistula encyclical ad episcopos Aegypti et Libyae, 12. Athanasius,NPNG2-04. Athanasius mete out Work and earns (Philip Schaff ed. Grand Rapids, Mi Christian Classics airy Library, 1892), 229. http//www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_229.html (25 April 2011).15Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, 1.4.1. See also the conclusion in Arius first Letter to Eusebius ofNicomedia. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 10.16Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 16.17See the Arius conclusion in his first Letter to Eusebius of Nicomedia. Athanius, De Synodis, II.26. Cf.Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 10. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian belief of God The ArianControversy 318-381, 8.18Athanasius, Ad Episcopos Aegypti 12. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 16. Maurice F. Wiles, firstheresy Arianism through the centuries, 8.19Italic rowing are mine. Athanasius, De Synodis 15. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, prototypic heresy Arianismthrough the centuries, 7. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God The Arian Controversy318-381, 15.3 is to be denied.20 (4) The Logos is created by God as the instrument of creation. The Logosholds a middle place between God and the world is made flesh by the will of the Father andfulfilled in Jesus Christ the function of a soul, though divine, was less than fully divine. 21(5 ) The sanctified Spirit is the first creature of the Logos, and is still less God than the Word.III. ATHANASIUS AND HIS THEOLOGYThough Athanasius was not a systematic theologian, his greatest lettering in life was the fierce defence of orthodox Christianity against the Arian heresy. 22 He was so identified with the cause that the successive history of the Arian controversy is best told by following Athanasius life.23 The three discourses of Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, were his main dogmatic writings targeted against Arianism.24 The first discourse contained the definition of the Nicene Council there is a unity of divine essence between the Father and the Son, and the Son is eternal, increated () and unchangeable.25III.1. ATHANASIUSAthanasius, De Synodis, 15. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 8. Cf. the following citation The leaders in the Arian movement (Arius himself, Eusebius of Nicomedia, Maris and Theognis) sure their discipline under Lucian and always venerated h im as their master and the founder of their system. Later critics of Lucian, including Alexander of Alexandria, during the Council of Nicaea in 325, associated his school with Ariuss rejection of the absolute divinity of Christ. No one before Lucian of Antioch and Arius had taught that the Logos is categorically different from God. of Lucian of Antioch in New Word Encyclopedia. http//www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Lucian_of_Antioch (10 April 2011).Cf. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God The Arian Controversy 318-381, 100-101.Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 67-68.Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66.Justo L. Gonzlez, The Story of Christianity, 166.Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 26.Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 26.The systematic and reliable ancient account of Athanasius could be found in theframework, such as Historia acephala and Festal Index.26Ordained as deacon to his bishop Alexander in Alexandria, Athanasius accompaniedAlexander to the Council at Nicaea (325). Lat er he succeeded Alexander and became thebishop of Alexandria (328-373).27 Athanasius, as a leading Christian writer of NeoAlexandrine School, adopted the historic-grammatical interpretation of Scripture (whichthe School of Antioch advocated) in all polemical and theological controversy with theArians.28The Arians enlisted the support of secular power and corrupt church place to silence and destroy Athanasius. When Athanasius refused Constantines order to readmit Arius to communion, his opponents launched all kind of allegations, causing calumnies further to increase.29 For instance, under the influence of Eusebius of Nicomedia, the bishops of the Tyrian Synod condemned Athanasius with mails which he could not escape. They exiled Athanasius to attempter and restored Arius to church communion and reinstate him into the rank of the clergy.30The history about Athanasius life is also found in his own writings and the Syriac mental institution to his Festal Letters, also in Historia a cephala or called Historia Athanasii, Gregory Nazianzens Oration 21, and some fragments of a Coptic eulogy. Cf. timothy D. Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius Theology and Politics in the Constantinian empire (2nd Printing 1994 Cambridge Harvard University Press, 1993), 5. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20.Athanasius in Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. http//www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Mainentry=t100.e116 (18 March 2011). Cf. David Hugh Farmer, Athanasius in The Oxford Dictionary of Saints (Oxford, UK Oxford University Press, 2003). Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 2, 20. Timothy D. Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire, 1.Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 2, 20.Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20-21.Athanasius was firstly charged with murder (sorcery and murder of Arsenius, a Meletian bishop in the Thebaid). His second charge was a political kind (he had threatened to stop the Alexandrian corn-ships).His terce charge was his order to assault the presbyter Ischyras. Cf. St. Athanasius (ca. 297 373), Patriarch of Alexandria in Christian Classic Ethereal Library. http//www.ccel.org/ccel/athanasius (18 March 2011). Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 9. Archibald Robertson, Select Writings and Letters of Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria Edited, with Prolegomena, Indices, and Titles (Ann Arbor, statute mile Cushing-Malloy Inc., 1978), lxxxvi. John Behr, The Nicene Faith Part1, 165-166. For the letter, see H.I. Bell, Jesus and Christians in Egypt (London 1924), 53-71. Because of Arian controversy, Athanasius dog-tired seventeen of his forty-five years as bishop in five different exiles.31 This situation happened, probably because his Defence against the Arians gave so full an account.32 Athanasius was likened to a modern gangster, an unscrupulous politician,33 because of his oppressive and violent authoritative nature.34 However he had never been formally charged with heresy,35 and some men tioned that he was the pillar of the church36 And the Roman Church hailed him among the four greatFathers of the East.37III.2. ATHANASIUS THEOLOGYAlexander and his successor Athanasius laid emphasis on Origens atmospheric pressure on the Sons eternal divinity related to the existence of God as Father rather than creator, which had led to the Nicene doctrine of the identity of substance (). Athanasius prioritized religious belief over reason, contrary to Arians rationalistic tendency.38 Athanasius theological approach was centred on Soteriology.39 He was committed to monotheism.40 But Arius account of God was disjointed since on one interpretation it was similar to the radical Judaic monotheism, and the other interpretation of it (one that emphasized the Son is god in some secondary sense) was equivalent to a kind of polytheism two gods, namely one God who is ingenerate and 31 Tony Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought, . Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. St. Athanasius (ca. 297 373), Patriarch of Alexandria in Christian Classic Ethereal Library. http//www.ccel.org/ccel/athanasius (18 March, 2011). See also, Timothy D. Barnes, Athanasius andConstantius Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire, 20. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God The Arian Controversy 318-381, 239-273, 422. Cf. David M. Gwynn, The Eusebians The Polemic of Athanasius of Alexandria and the Construction of the Arian Controversy (Oxford Theological Monographs Oxford Oxford University Press, 2007), 2. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy Arianism through the centuries, 6. John Behr, The Nicene Faith Part 1, 167. Cf. Adolf Harnack, History of Dogma, (6 vols trans. Neil Buchanan New York Dover Publications,1961, Vol. 4), 62. http//www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma4.ii.ii.i.i.iii.html (25 April 2011).Gregory of Nazianzus, The Orations 21, 26. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. The four great Fathers of the east Church John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Athanasius of Alexandria were recognized in 1568 by pope St. Pius V. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 20. Church Fathers in Wikipedia http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_the_Church (6 April 2011).Athanasius, In Illud Omnia mihi tradita sunt, 6. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 423. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 425. one who is generated. This resulted in two incongruous accusations against the Arians thatthey were no better than Jews and that they were identical with pagans. 41Unlike the Arians, who required the Son as a lower god to reconcile an infrequent andimpassable God with the biblical message that God suffered for humankinds salvation,Athanasius dealt with the self-revelation of God who had come into the closest contactwith His creation (Jn 149).42Athanasius endeavoured to substantiate the very impost, teaching, and faith of theCatholic Church from th e beginning, which the schoolmaster gave, the Apostles preached, and theFathers kept. Athanasius maintained, I have delivered the tradition, without inventinganything extraneous to it. The tradition was that the one God is a Triad.43TrinityAt the heart of Athanasiuss theology of Incarnation lay his doctrine of Trinity,44 summed up as follows There is a Trinity, holy and complete, consistent, eternal and indivisible in nature, not composed of one that creates and one that originated, but all creative, called to be God in Father, Son and Holy Spirit. The Father does all things through the Word (the Son) in the Holy Spirit. Their activity is one, and their unity is preserved. The Trinity is Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos III.67, I.17, 18, III.16. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy Arianism through the centuries, 8. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God The Arian Controversy 318-381, 424-425.R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 426.Athan asius, Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum, I, 28-33. Cf. Johannes Quasten,Pathology, 66. Brian LePort, An Introduction to the Letters of Serapion on the Holy Spirit by Athanasius ofAlexandria, 18.http//westernseminary.academia.edu/BrianLePort/Papers/172851/An_Introduction_to_the_Letters_of_Serapion_on_the_Holy_Spirit_by_Athanasius_of_Alexandria. (21 April 2011).Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos III.15 Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius Select Work and Letters, 402. http//www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_402.html (20 April 2011). R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God The Arian Controversy 318-381, 424-425. not only in name and form of speech but in truth and actuality. Thus one God, who is overall (Eph. 46), and through all and in all.45 Athanasius constantly defended the ontological unity of the Father and the Son through his Scriptural argument. He proved the divinity of Christ and of Holy Spirit,46 because if we participate in Christ, we mus t then participate in God, if our redemption is to be assured. 47 Athanasius refuted Arius claims that the Son was a creature and had come into being from non-existence, and that there was a time when He was not. Athanasius argued that there can be only one Son the eternal Word and Wisdom of the substance of God the Father, and that the Word is always coexistent with the Father, who is the creator and Lord of all, to whom all things owed their existence.48 Athanasius rejected the Arian position that the very name Son presumes His being generated, and that the Son (the Word) is a work of the will of God for the creation of the world. Athanasius argued that to be begotten implies to be an offspring of the Fathers essence, not of His will, since begetting in God differs from human begetting because of Gods indivisibility.Because the Son is in the Father and proper to Him, as the radiance in the light and float from fountain, Athanasius asserted that the Sons eternal relation to the F ather is essential Italic words are mine. Athanasius, Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum, I, 2, 12, 14, 16, 19-20, 25, 27, 31 III, 15. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos II.24, 25. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 66-67. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God The Arian Controversy 318-381, 427. Athanasius, De incarnation et contra Arianos, 13-19. Cf. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God The Arian Controversy 318-381, 422. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 29. Kurt Aland, A History of Christianity From the Beginnings to the Threshold of the Reformation (Trans. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia Fortress Press, 1980, Vol. 1), 191. Athanasius, Vita antonii, 69. Athanasius, Depositio Arii, 2, 3. Athanasius, Epistula de decretis Nicaenae synodi, 11. Athanasius, On Luke X.22 (Matt. XI.27) in In Illud Omnia mihi tradita sunt, 4. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, III.4 Cf. Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius Select Work and Letters, 214. http//w ww.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_214.html (15 April 2011). Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius Select Work and Letters, 70. http//www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_70.html (15 April 2011). Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius Select Work and Letters, 89. http//www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_89.html (18 April 2011). Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69. and not provided moral as Arius viewed.49 Also, Athanasius refuted the Docetic views of theArians and Apollonarians on the relationship of the historical Christ to the eternal Son. 50 Arius maintained, based on Proverbs 822ff, that the Sons mediatory ontological status between God and creation was necessary, because the Father was too high and mighty, or too proud to carry out the work of creation himself, and therefore begot the Son as the minister of the intentions of the Father.51 However, Athanasius argued that the price applied to the Incarnate and not the pre-existent Christ Thus, Athanasius implied that the mediating activ ity of the Son is not in his position within the Godhead, but in his decent Incarnate.So, Athanasius placed the Son (Logos) on the side of God, opposite Arius position of the Son on the side of the creatures.52 Athanasius insisted that the Son has in common with the Father the fullness of the Fathers Godhead and the Son is entirely God.53 Against Arius subordination of the Son, Athanasius argued that if the Son says, The Father is greater than I, He means that, The Father is the origin, the Son the derivation.54 Eternally begotten, the Son is the Fathers substance, He is consubstantial to the Father, He is .55 Athanasius also rejected the term as unacceptable. So, Athanasius defended the term against the Arians and Semi-Arians.56 Consequently, Athanasius disapproved what the Arians claim a proceeding origin for the Father and the Son.57 Athanasius, Epistula ad Afros episcopos, 3-6. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 56, 67-68. Athanasius, Epistula ad Epictetum episcopum Corinthi, 9. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 59. Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos II.24-25. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy Arianism through the centuries, 8. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God The Arian Controversy 318-381, 101.Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos, II.25 I.16 III.3, 6 II.41 III.3,4. Athanasius, Epistula ad Afros episcopos, 3-6. Cf. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God The Arian Controversy 318381, 424. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 67. Athanasius, Oratinones contra Arianos I.16 III.6. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 68. Athanasius, Oratinones contra Arianos III, 3 Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69. Athanasius, De Synodis 41. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69. Athanasius, De Synodis 41. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 69-70. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God, 434. Logos and RedemptionAthanasius theology of the Logos centred upon the construct of redemption.58 For Athanasius, the redeeming will of God necessitated the incarnation of Christ and his death. If God Himself had not become man, and if Christ were not God, there would not have been redemption for mankind.59 This can only required that Christ was God by nature, not by participation, because the latter could never have formed the likeness of God in anyone. Thus, Athanasius refuted the Arian concept of the Son as god by participation.60ChristologyAthanasius theology upheld the real distinction between the divinity and humanity after the Incarnation, yet emphasized the personal unity of Christ. Consequently, whatever the Lord did as God and as human being belongs to the same person.61 Athanasius refuted the Arian charge of creature- devotion tell against the Nicene Christology with the argument, that Catholics do not worship the humanity of Christ, but the Lord of creation, the Word Incarnate.62Holy SpiritBy maintaining that the Spirit is no creature, but is one with the Son as the Son is one with the Father, the Sp irit is glorified with the Father and the Son, and confessed as God with the Word, Athanasius rejected the psyche of the Holy Spirit being one of the Athanasius, De incarnatione et contra Arianos, 9, 54. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 70-71. Athanasius, De incarnatione et contra Arianos, 8. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 71. Athanasius, De Synodis 51. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 71-72. Athanasius, De Sententia Dionysii 9. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology,72. Athanasius, Epistula ad Adelphium et confessorem, 3. Athanasius, Letter LX. To Adelphius, Bishop and Confessor against the Arians in NPNG2-04. Athanasius Select Work and Letters, 575. http//www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_575.html (20 April 2011). Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, ministering spiritual creatures, and insisted the Godhead of the Holy Spirit according to the Nicene Creed.63 Athanasius defended the non-scriptural Nicene term (consubstantial) and (of the essence). He claimed that these damage were to be found in the Scripture, and they had already been used by the Church Fathers, including Tertullian, Origen, Dionysius of Rome, Dionysius of Alexandria and Theognostus.64 Against the claims of the heretic Arians and Tropicists, Athanasius gave the reasons for adopting the word (consubstantial) for both the Son and the Spirit in relation to the Father, and proved that the Nicaeas Trinitarian formula was in accordance with Scripture.65 Athanasius accused the Arians of teaching that God was not always a Trinity since the Son has not always existed, and also of dividing the Trinity because they attributed different natures to the Father and the Son.66Arianism attacks the very nature of Christianity because it denotes a God who was not a true God at all, who was in no position to communicate salvation to humans, and therefore incompetent for redeeming mankind.67 The Arian doctrine, which formed a canon Athanasius, Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum, I, 1, 15-21, 27, 3 1 III.1. Athanasius, Oratinones contra Arianos II, 25, 26, 73, 74. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 56, 67. For a discussion of Athanasiuss use of homoousious of the Spirit, see Kilian McDonald, The other hand of God the Holy Spirit as the Universal touch on and Goal (Collegeville, Minnesota, USA Liturgical Press, 2003), 18, 74, 126. Athanasius, Epistula de decretis Nicaenae synodi, 18. Athanasius, NPNG2-04. Athanasius Select Work and Letters, 163. http//www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204/Page_163.html (20 April 2011). Cf. JohannesQuasten, Pathology, 61.Epistula de decretis Nicaenae synodi (Letter Concerning the Decrees of the Council of Nicaea) was write about 350/351 and intercommunicate by Athanasius to one of his friends, to whom the Arian claim had caused confusion. Whereas and Epistulae IV ad Serapionem episcopum Thmuitanum (the four letters concerning the Holy Spirit) was written by Athanasius around 359/360 and addressed to Serapion to refute the heretic tropicists, who opp osed the divinity of the Holy Spirit. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 57, 61. Kilian McDonald, The other hand of God the Holy Spirit as the Universal exigency and Goal, 18. R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for Christian Doctrine of God The Arian Controversy 318-381, 424. Athanasius, De synodis 51. Cf. Johannes Quasten, Pathology, 8. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy Arianism through the centuries, 7. of scriptural misinterpretation, was a slander against the Fathers. 68 The worship which the Arians offered to God was a blasphemous idolatry. 69 Athanasius defended the consubstantiality of the Son with the Father, successfully explained the nature and generation of the Logos, built the ground of the Trinitarian and Christological doctrine of the Church, and thus open up the theological foundation for centuries to come.70Athanasius Christological weaknessIn his Christology, Athanasius did not seize any important role to the human soul of Christ. In fact, When the Arians objected the divinity of Christ by referring to the Scriptural passages which mention the inner suffering, fear and sorrow of the Logos, Athanasius never made use the opportunity and never attacked the Arians in this error, because it dealt with the human soul of Christ. 71 Christs death is to Athanasius is a separation of Logos and body.72 Athanasius theology was based on Logos-Sarx theology. In relation to Orationes contra Arianos (III.35-37) its weakness was revealed when Athanasius could not remark to the Arians in (1) the connecting link between the Logos and his flesh (2) the existence of a human soul in Christ.73Athanasius, De Sententia Dionysii 1. Cf. Maurice F. Wiles, Archetypal heresy Arianism through thecenturies, 8.Athanasius, Orationes contra Arianos I.8, II.43, III.16. Athanasius, Ad Episcopos Aegypti 13. Cf. MauriceF. Wiles, Archetypal heresy AriWhat are the furbish ups of aquaculture on biodiversity?What are the impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity?Thesis the greatest impact s of aquaculture on biodiversity are the possible impact of escapees, the degradation of the environment, especially through eutrophication, and the greater risk of harm caused to a wild population.LINK TO IMPACT ON BIODIVERSITY (EFFECT) AQUACULTURE (CAUSE)IntroAquaculture can be thought of as a practice that it similar to market-gardening. It involves the cultivation of aquatic dwelling organisms either on land, in a tank system or artificial pond (offshore), or in a of course occurring waterbody using nets or cages to contain the farmed organisms (Lee and Yoo 2014 Rabasso and Hernandez 2015). Aquaculture as an industry has grown importantly in the past few decades, growing to meet the demanding needs of the human food supply network (Diaz-Almela et al. 2008 Borja et al. 2009 Rabasso and Hernandez 2015), as it is an important inseparable vision (Ormerod 2003). This increase in captive cultivation has slowed the unsustainable practice of mass surprise wild stocks as a supply (Santos et al. 2015 Frazer 2009). Aquaculture exists as one of the prompt growing industries in the world today (Naylor et al. 2001), and this growth is projected to increase ever further (Froehlic et al. 2017). Despite this, many of these cultured organisms can have a negative impact on the environment that they inhabit (Fleming et al. 1996 Boyd 2003), in part because of its proximity with the subjective environment (Abdou et al. 2017). Aquaculture has the ability to greatly impact biodiversity as well if not carefully managed. These impacts on biodiversity can thrill through multiple trophic levels, and can completely change the natural environment. The greatest impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity are the possible invasion of escapees, the degradation of the environment, particularly through eutrophication, and the greater risk of harm caused to a wild population. by means of these modes of disruption, aquaculture has the ability to drastically alter the present biodiversit y if not managed appropriately.1 the possible invasion of escapeesThe possibility of escaped organisms invading a habitat, and pushing out a native species is quite high when aquaculture is in or near existing waterbodies. A wide variety of organisms are farmed in the world (Naylor et al. 2001). From this, Aquaculture has led to the introduction of many invasive species into the ecosystem, and poor practices may cause invasion occurrences to happen more often (Naylor et al. 2001). The escape of cultured organisms can threaten both the habitats and gene pool of wild populations, causing them, and the border biodiversity to change drastically (Fleming et al. 1996). The organisms that are either intentionally, or unintentionally released are able to reproduce in their new habitat rather successfully (Fleming et al. 1996 Volpe 2000). Many escapes such as salmon, are able to out compete, and out number the wild populations, thus threatening their survival (Fleming et al. 1996). Their in vasion may lead to a change in ecosystem dynamics, effectively impacting the natural biodiversity that would otherwise be present.2 the degradation of the environment, particularly through eutrophicationThe degradation of the natural environment is just one of the many drawbacks that Aquaculture presents. As a result of the exponential growth of the industry, the sustainability and environmental impact of Aquaculture is often scrutinized (Rabasso and Hernandez 2015) for the elevated levels of nursery gas emissions, nutrient pollution, water use, and land use that has followed (Gephart et al. 2016). There are many detrimental practices to Aquaculture such as water pollution from pond discharge, the excessive use of antibiotics to combat disease, Salinization of land from pond leeching, and the mass phthisis of freshwater for farming purposes (Boyd 2003). Many of these practices degrade the environment, and threaten biodiversity in such a way that is irreversible. Aquaculture, and in particular fish farms, are an increase cause of anthropogenic disturbance in benthic communities, (Diaz-Almela et al. 2008). Often when farmed within an natural waterbody, fish cages and nets see the release of large quantities of organic waste government issue that are spread by water-flow and may lead to biochemical changes, and cause the deoxygenation of the aquatic environment, further impacting benthic communities (Zhang and Kitazawa 2016 Diaz-Almela et al. 2008 OCarroll et al. 2016). In the aquaculture industry, fish farming can promote an increased rate of eutrophication which can severely damage coastal ecosystems (Yu et al. 2016) through the addition of elements such as Nitrogen and Phosphorous (Penczak et al. 1982). The damage caused by eutrophication can lead to a disturbance like effect, which can in turn, cause a significant decrease in the biodiversity of that area (Abdou et al. 2017), further degrading the environment.In an attempt to combat the damage caused when fa rming within a natural ecosystem, many countries of the European Union (including Canada, the United States, and Australia) are beginning to establish offshore farming with the hope for meliorate sustainability (Froehlic et al. 2017).Social study Theory Outline and EvaluateSocial training Theory Outline and EvaluateEllie ThomasCriminologyOutline what is meant by the term identification in relation to the social seeing theory approach. 2 marks denomination is a psychological process whereby someone identifies with something from another person, typically a model of theirs, and then uses this in order to change their personality. For example, a little boy may rank with his older brother because they are both male, and so when he sees him stealing from a shop, he copies.Explain one limitation of the social learning theory approach. 3 marksThis approach is less predestinarian than the doingsist approach. Reciprocal determination, introduced by Bandura, is the idea that we are not just influenced by environmental factors, however but merely influences and directs us to digest a certain way. This suggests that we have a sense of free will in our deportment, and doesnt just stick to to one theory as to wherefore we behave the way that we do.Outline and evaluate the social learning theory approach. Refer to the deportmentist approach as part of your evaluation.Even though the social learning theory (SLT) does agree with the behaviourist theory that most of our behaviour is learned through experience Bandura also propose the idea that people can learn through different way, e.g. observation and imitation. Learning does occur through classical and operant conditioning however, we can also learn indirectly through watching others and learning from mistakes.another(prenominal) word for this is vicarious reinforcement learning through observing and imitating indirectly. An individual observes the behaviour of someone and if the behaviour is received positivel y, they would learn that they can do that, and if it is received negatively, they will know to never do it. So, if someone is punished we learn not to copy the behaviour, and if someone is rewarded we know that we should or could repeat that behaviourA huge idea throughout the SLT approach is the role of mediational processes. This is the concept that mental processes effect our behaviour. These mental factors, or mediational processes, created by Bandura, are attention the extent to which we notice certain behaviours retention how well the behaviour is remembered get reproduction the ability to perform the behaviour and motivation the will to perform the behaviour.Identification is also a key concept in SLT. This is when people are more likely to imitate the behaviour of people we identify with. These are known as models. We can find models in people we find attractive, family, friends, and peers, and people of high status. If we see our model behaving in a certain way, we are more lily to copy it (imitate it).One strength of the social learning theory is that it is less determinist than the behaviourist approach. Reciprocal determination, introduced by Bandura, is the idea that we are not just influenced by environmental factors, however but merely influences and directs us to behave a certain way. This suggests that we have a sense of free will in our behaviour, and doesnt just stick to one theory as to why we behave the way that we do.Another strength of this approach is that it explains cultural differences in behaviour. This theory can explain how people living in Nigeria behave differently to people living in England, for example, because it says our behaviour is through learning from those around us and the societies in which we live. This has been a useful concept in understanding why children from different countries act differently, for example how they come to understand their gender role.A lowest strength of the social learning theory approa ch is that it shows the importance of cognitive factors in learning. Conditioning alone, whether it operant, classical, or both, cannot provide a good equal explanation for behaviour. Humans and animals alike learn and remember behaviours which they should do. For example, from a young child children learn from their older siblings mistakes and therefore avoid doing that punished behaviour. Bandura sight a similar thing with his bobo doll, as when children were shown an adult hitting a bobo doll and getting away with it, they repeated the behaviour, however when they saw an adult getting in trouble for it, they didnt. Therefore, this is a strength because it provides a more comprehensive and detailed explanation of behaviour.However, a weakness of the SLT approach is that it over-relies on evidence from lab studies. Many of the ideas that Bandura developed were all tested through lab studies, and not real life situations. Studies done in labs can often not be a true reflection of what the research worker is investigating because of this. For example, the children in Banduras bobo doll experiment may have silent that as they were not in a real-life situation being shown a video of an aggressive adult, for example they were supposed to copy the behaviours of the adult or they may have acted the way they thought they were supposed to. Therefore, the research may tell us little about how the children truly would have behaved.A final evaluation point of this approach is the weakness that the SLT underestimates the influence of biologic factors. Little reference to biological factors are mentioned by Bandura in this approach. However, we can see from his studies that biology does take a toll. For example, boys were found to be more aggressive towards the bobo doll, however we know that testosterone is a hormone found by nature in males, that makes them more aggressive by nature. Therefore, we cannot put down their behaviour entirely to learning, as biology m ust play a role in it.

Issues with Balanced Scorecard: A Case Study

cut backs with equilibrise poster A Case StudyI. I think Fitzharrys Ltds financial statements be incomplete.a. They contain nonhing rough the corporations plans and budgets for the year to 31 December 2005, nor about instruction execution since the year end. Its directors be failing in their duty to corroborate sliceake inholders to the full informed of the companys current exploit.The most up to succession records that be available be the records ending in 2004. Although they may non be all in all up to date for the complete benefit of the shareholders, they are the however records that we be harbour to go on. However the terminuss that we do have front to paint a positive seemly picture for us to be surefooted going forward. They show that Fitzharrys Ltd profit margin and different several(prenominal)ise indicators have risen inexorably over the past few years, grownup Larkmead untold to go on when looking at a potency purchase. The figures which we have so far are more than satiscircumstanceory, and wherefore for us they do not pose a signifi standt problemb. We grapple that the company has a great deal of genuine testament represented by its established name, professional staff and loyal customers. Why does this plus not bulge in the financial statements?There are many a(prenominal) practical good reasons as to why the companys goodwill does not appear in the financial statements. Goodwill is in itself an intangible asset. Whilst there are ways of measuring goodwill, it is not one of the key indicators that we are looking at. It is true that the goodwill of the company may add to what we have to pay for Fitzharrys Ltd, however goodwill is very much an important asset which we will see the many benefits of in any nuclear fusion. A merger destroys the targets old goodwill and creates new goodwill to appear in consolidated books. As such I am insouciant about the accompaniment that goodwill is not represented on thes e statements, and tincture that it will stand a bonus for Larkmead after any takeover. The fact that it does not appear in the financial statements is more likely than not due to the fact that goodwill is difficult to define in strictly monetary terms.II.I think its financial statements are wrong. The company increase its profit exactly its cash balance has declined in the year. How mountain this be correct?The fact that its profits are up can be seen to be the most important factor. There are excessively several other factors to be taken into consideration, and I do not bank that these figures are necessarily incorrect. When a profit is recorded other changes on the balance sheet depend on revenue transactions and spending transactions. Often a transaction does not significantly affect the balances in an identify as many other factors go into play as a ensue. The figures which are available are satisfactory and are enough to suggest that Fitzharrys Ltd would be a good in vestment.III.The coin Fitzharrys Ltd is owed by its customers has kaput(p) up by over 55% from 2003 to 2004, and this in a sequence of recession. Have they lost control over the situation? They may well(p) be owed money however they are a company who are gainful in large by the reality sector. Central and topical anesthetic government are not a high debt risk and we can be fairly confident that they will pay back the money which is owed to Fitzharrys Ltd. We will not need debt collection agencies to deal with any aboriginal government clients. The country was not in recession in 2003 and 2004, and therefore construction projects undertaken by the government or local councils were not unusual, and I am sure that Fitzharrys ltd had good reasons for accepting credit from these agencies. We can surely be tot each(prenominal) toldy confident that the money will be paid back. Therefore in this case it is not fair to say that the commission at Fitzharrys Ltd has lost control over the situation. On the contrary they have gained several good and reliable line of descent contacts.We can be confident to the reliability of Fitzharry Ltds clients that the situation is not as bad as if the debtors were individual customers of dubious credit history.IV.A similar thing has happened to its account it has gone up by nearly 40% as well. sure this must express a lack of management control?The fact that Fitzharrys Ltds inventory has gone up by nearly 40 per cent does not necessarily indicate that there has been any termination of management control by the company. An inventory is a list of goods and materials which is owned by the company in this case it will be make up largely of construction related germinate. In a festering construction company it is only natural that the inventory on that companies books will also grow. In the case of germinate which is held by the company, the stock is all produce that can be sold on by the company and therefore adds to F itzharrys Ltds overall value and desirability. Any businesses which stocks too dwarfish inventory will then be unable to take service of large rules from any customers. It can be seen as generally good overall practice for Fitzharrys Ltd to have this large an inventory as it represents stock that can be used for the benefit of potential clients or, alternatively, can be sold at a profit.However I do share your concern about the level of inventory, at least to a sealed extent as there are sometimes problems which an excessive substance of inventory can bring. For one thing there are many things which can be hidden by the account of inventory. Also, whilst it is an asset on the balance sheet, at the same time it is also money secure up which could be used for another purpose other than stock just sitting in a warehouse. Plus, it should be taken into account that a high inventory causes significant tax expenses, which is clearly not desirable. However looking at the overall pict ure I am un relate about this rise in inventory. It shows that the company is growing, can reckon further business, and it does not in any way seem to indicate any loss of management control by Fitzharrys Ltd.V.I may have to sell some of my shares in Larkmead plc. My stockbroker tells me companies like ours have a footing/earnings ratio of about 11 to 1. What does this mean, and what does it indicate about the price I should sell my shares for? set/Earnings (P/E) Ratio is careful as Market Value Per share over the Earnings Per Share (EPS) of the company in question. A high P/E instrument that investors are expecting higher earnings growth in the future from that company. The set down the required rate of re subroutine then the greater the growth of earnings. The price earnings ratio tends to rise when the rate of return on superabundance rises relative to the rate of growth of profitable investment opportunities. As bubbles enlarge price-earnings ratios will rise above those predicted by fundamental analysis. Therefore in recent years many businesses may have experienced blow up Price Earnings ratios, and with the oncoming recession it could reasonably expected that the Price Earnings ratio will fall.In your case 11/1 translates as 11. In the same way as 49/7 calculates as seven this is how P/E is calculated. 11 is just infra what you might expect to be the average for a P/E ratio, and therefore will fetch a fairly decent get on the stock market.A equilibrate poster is a performance managing tool which is used for making sure that the various component move of an organisation share one general overall shared finis. It is a passing effective way of assessing corporate performance. A match board come up focuses not only on financial outcomes, but also on other key organisational factors, such as an organsiations employees and its customers. The match notice approach has been enormously successful and popular1 since its introduction. It is e stimated that by 2005 the equilibrise Scorecard approach had been adopted by 44 per cent of the UKs top FTSE 100 companies2 importee that it has almost eclipsed the traditional focus on reported positiveness by organisationsThe first individuals to put forward the match menu approach were Robert Kaplan and David Norton in the early nineties, although many of the practices that they set up had been in use for a while, with companies such as General Electric being pioneers in the 1950s. Kaplan and Norton were concerned with producing alignment in companies and suggested the use of the equilibrize scorecard approach, whilst they also suggested other methods such as Strategy Maps.3The strategic equilibrate scorecard is make up around central key panoramas often four perspectives but occasionally up to five perspectives. These are the financial perspective, the customer perspective, the congenital processes perspective, the perspective of innovation and improvement, and the emp loyee perspective. The financial perspective was previously the only perspective which mattered in many organisational models, and the disproportionate focus on reported profitability was a problem. Hence the use of the word balanced in the balanced scorecard, as the other perspectives provide a balance against the financial perspective, therefrom helping organisations to provide an effective overall schema.Many of the benefits of balanced scorecards come from the implementation methods. There are typically four processes in implementing balanced scorecards. Firstly translating the visual sense of the organisation into operational goals. Secondly communicating that vision and linking that vision to individual performances of members of staff operating within the organsiational framework. Thirdly business planning, and finally receiving feedback and adjusting the strategy in accordance with that feedback. The balanced scorecard relies on key performance indicators such as customer satisfaction and overall equipment effectiveness. The balanced scorecard defines the strategic linkages to integrate performance across organisations, and aligns strategic initiatives.A balanced scorecard tends to have a set of goals which are linked to each of the four or five core perspectives. formerly the goals linked to the perspectives have been decided upon then link are effectuate between the goals across the various perspectives in order to join up the various component parts of the companies overall corporate strategy. These various links help to provide an effective overall joined-up corporate strategy. The power of the balanced scorecard is therefore to clarify strategy, to focus an organisation and to make the strategy easily operational. The balanced scorecard helps to promote an overall vision and it acts as an umbrella for a variety of often disconnected corporate programmes. other advantage of the balanced scorecard is that it is not over-complicated, and it t herefore does not result in confusion as to the meaning of the various perspectives and goals. In order to prevent any such confusion it is worth being vigilant about setting an excessive number of objectives, as this can be a disadvantage4, introducing confusion to a relatively simple system.A balanced scorecard is a highly desirable tool as it helps to provide an overall organisational performance, which is very much important in business. An example of an organistaion which course has an obvious overall strategy is a football club. Whereas at a football club everyone knows that your assume is to score goals and move up the unite table, such clear aims do not necessarily exist in an organisation, particularly for individual employees working in that organisation who often only see there existence as within their little team. The aim of the balanced scorecard was to move away from this narrow perspective, and to create a broader vision where what the company is trying to achieve becomes more obvious for employees. A sporting analogy can often be successful in an organsiationAs with football clubs, in business a simple goal is always most desirable. Progress needs to be communicated to individuals in a business, in a similar way to how they would in a football club. A balanced scorecard provides a methodology that turns the eyes of all employees in a single direction, and helps those at the top of the organisation keep in contact with those in the rest of the organsiation. The role of feedback in the balanced scorecard method is vital.The balanced scorecard is however not entirely without its critics. One criticism of balanced scorecards is that they are not based on any proven financial or economic theory, and that the relative youth of the theory means that few holes have yet to be picked in the scorecard. There is also a belief that positive feedback from balanced scorecards could be in part due to a sort of placebo effect from companies who are in thra ll to the supposed wonder of balanced scorecards, and are incapable(p) of looking at balanced scorecards with a critical eye. These criticisms will unbosom take several years to be borne out, however it does seem at this time that those companies both public sector and private sector are very happy with the advances that the balanced scorecard has brought. As a result of this criticisms of the balanced scorecard approach are still very much few and far between.In conclusion a balanced scorecard is very useful in providing an overall organisational vision and organisational strategy. Through a balanced scorecard the often undervalued employees are included as part of an overall vision in an organsiation, and are helped to understand their overall role and their responsibilities. In this way corporate performance is assessed and feedback can in turn go back to the top of the organsiation so that improvements can be success amply implemented. The traditional focus on reported profi tability lacks the subtlety of the balanced scorecard approach, which is perhaps why top organsiations in both the public and the private sector are increasingly using the balanced scorecard approach to the assessment of corporate performance. It certainly seems to be a highly successful mode of assessment, and any criticisms are yet to be fully fleshed out. By providing a framework of assessment which works this effectively, overall organisational goals can be more easily set out any implemented.BibliographyKaplan, R.S. Norton, D.P. 1996, The equilibrize Scorecard Translating Strategy into Action, Harvard Business School Press, Harvard.Kpcke, Richard W., Profits and Stock Prices The impressiveness of Being Earnest, New England Economic Review, 1992, p 26+Maclean, Rob, conjugation Using the Balanced Scorecard to Create Corporate Synergies, Australian daybook of Management, Volume 31. Issue 2, 2006, p 367+Stancil, John L., Balanced Scorecard Diagnostics-Maintaining uttermost Pe rformance, Issues in Accounting Education, Volume 21. Issue 2, 2006, p 158+Kaplan Brings Balanced Scorecard to Brum, The Birmingham Post, March 11 2005Footnotes1 Maclean, Rob, Alignment Using the Balanced Scorecard to Create Corporate Synergies, Australian Journal of Management, Volume 31. Issue 2, 2006, p 367+2 Kaplan Brings Balanced Scorecard to Brum, The Birmingham Post, March 11 20053 Maclean, Rob, Alignment Using the Balanced Scorecard to Create Corporate Synergies, Australian Journal of Management, Volume 31. Issue 2, 2006, p 367+4 Stancil, John L., Balanced Scorecard Diagnostics-Maintaining Maximum Performance, Issues in Accounting Education, Volume 21. Issue 2, 2006, p 158+